‘NOTHING IS IN VAIN': Non-Standard Negation and Cyclical Change in Kutu, Kwere, and Zalamo

Abstract

This work concerns the polyfunctionality and grammaticalization of an item bule in the under described Tanzanian Bantu languages, Kutu, Kwere, and Zalamo. Through collection and analysis of field data, it is shown that the original adverbial element bule ‘for free, in vain, for no reason’ has developed a wide range of functions within the domain of non-standard negation. The innovated functions of bule are negative emphatic particle, negative interjection, and negative possessive and locational predication. The study compares language data from the three languages under study and from five other Tanzanian Bantu languages: Kami, Ndamba, Ndengeleko, Pogolo, and Vidunda. In these languages, hela/hera and -duhu/tʊpʊ are found to be almost identical to bule in form and function. Through analysis of microvariation, it is proposed that bule, hela/hera, and -duhu/tʊpʊ all have followed the same pathway of change. Furthermore, it is suggested that the grammaticalization path is cyclical, in which a new item, e.g., bule is incorporated into the cycle and follows the same conceptual pattern as a previous item e.g., duhu.